Integrated coastal and ocean management of areas hosting marine mammalsa case study in the strait of Gibraltar

Resumen

The Strait of Gibraltar is a cross-border coastal and marine area in which overlapping intense maritime traffic and highly protected species of cetaceans could generate conservational or economic conflict. The current publication applies an integrated management approach in order to improve knowledge of cetaceans, maritime activities, and Whale Watching (WW), as well as to involve key stakeholders in WW and to provide insights for a sustainable public policy in the Strait. A comparative study on WW activity in the Strait of Gibraltar and in the Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand, was interrupted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This abrupt change allowed us to investigate the effects of the human lockdowns, such as the reduction in maritime traffic, on the marine animals of the Gulf, contributing to the study of the global effects on nature. This thesis is organized into the following sections: i) Whale watching activities, ii) monitoring maritime traffic and cetaceans using ferries as platforms and iii) effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on nature. In order to achieve social, economic, and ecological sustainability, WW in the Strait of Gibraltar needs adequate management. In Tarifa (Spain) and Gibraltar (UK), between 2017 and 2019, key stakeholders (e.g., WW customers and operators, researchers, NGOs, and policymakers) were invited to fill out 637 questionnaires and a direct assessment of the WW trips was conducted. Results suggest that: (1) local WW operators only partially follow WW legislation, (2) whale watchers had high levels of education and purchasing power, and the majority of them were national tourists who showed signs of loyalty to WW and support for conservation, (3) 51% of the expenses made by WW customers directly benefited the local economy of Tarifa, (4) customers scored WW operators more highly when cetaceans were indifferent to, or approached vessels, and their satisfaction improved depending on the education provided before and during the WW trip, and (5) interviewed stakeholders recognize the scientific, recreational and educational values of WW. As a result of this study we recommend implementing educational programmes, launching national publicity campaigns targeting whale watchers, establishing administrative facilities for WW companies, monitoring WW activities, and enforcing WW legislation to promote sustainable management of WW. Furthermore, the designation of Marine Protected Areas, a regional shipping plan, and an integrated management approach could benefit the WW industry and improve its sustainability. Cetaceans and their threats were monitored using ferries as a platform of opportunity along the routes Algeciras¿Ceuta and Algeciras-Tanger Med in the Strait during 2018 and 2019, following the standardized protocol of the international cooperative project Fix Line Transect Mediterranean Monitoring Network (FLT Med Net). During 59 visual surveys 264 sightings of cetaceans were reported, including seven species and four near-miss collisions (pilot, sperm, and fin whales). Data were used to i) investigate cetaceans¿ seasonal presence and distribution and, for the bottlenose dolphin, habitat suitability in the Strait, ii) consider cetaceans' relationships with different maritime activities identifying risk areas and the consistency of the spatial conservation spatial management measures in force, and iii) compare data with the other partner of the FLT Med Net across two Habitat Directive 6-year periods (2013-2019/2008-2012), testing four potential indicators to assess short-term range and habitat trends of the Risso¿s dolphin, and of the pilot and Cuvier¿s whale (low-density species). The FLT Med Net sampling design proved adequate for trend assessment in the Western Mediterranean and Adriatic. In conclusion, together with international surveillance, the designation of a micro-sanctuary in the Bay between Algeciras and Gibraltar, and a mandatory speed reduction to 13 knots in an extended Cetacean Critical Navigation Zone can positively optimize conservation efforts in the Strait of Gibraltar. The lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic banned all non-essential services and travel both on land and sea in several parts of the world. In response to this sudden drop in traffic, the bigeyes fish and the bottlenose dolphin experienced an immediate increase in their communication ranges by up to 65% in the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park, demonstrating how small vessels can impact underwater soundscapes. These results were shared with the global scientific community to monitor the immediate impacts of lockdowns, demonstrating how humans are both threatening and protecting ecosystems and species. It is possible to favourably tilt this delicate balance by reducing impacts and increasing conservation effectiveness.